Once she was able to limit her use to less than 12 ounces of soda a day, both her mental and physical health gradually improved. A womans menstrual cycle is an example of a biological rhythma recurring, cyclical pattern of bodily changes. For instance, some people would say they are morning people, while others would consider themselves to be night owls. Loss of appetite. Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. Beyond being awake or asleep, there are many other states of consciousness people experience. Another theory regarding why we sleep involves sleeps importance for cognitive function and memory formation (Rattenborg, Lesku, Martinez-Gonzalez, & Lima, 2007). 0. Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression. In fact, ameta-analysis, which is a study that combines the results of many related studies, conducted within the last decade indicates that by the time we are 65 years old, we average fewer than 7 hours of sleep per day (Ohayon, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004). Acircadian rhythmis a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours. As you will learn when you study social roles, peoples behavior can be shaped by their expectations of how they should act in a given situation. By analyzing dreams, Freud thought people could increase self-awareness and gain valuable insight to help them deal with the problems they faced in their lives. In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to find that they have difficulty getting back to sleep. One complete menstrual cycle takes about 28 daysa lunar monthbut many biological cycles are much shorter. People who suffer from insomnia might limit their use of stimulant drugs (such as caffeine) or increase their amount of physical exercise during the day. Surprisingly, sleep apnea may exacerbate cardiovascular disease (Snchez-de-la-Torre, Campos-Rodriguez, & Barb, 2012). Psychological dependence on these drugs is also possible. Recent adaptations (e.g., Hobson, 2002) continue to update the theory based on accumulating evidence. A) managed care Sleep is also associated with the secretion and regulation of a number of hormones from several endocrine glands including: melatonin, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. These drugs promote increased levels of neural activity. Methadoneis a synthetic opioid that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs. The pons is important for regulating rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person withnarcolepsycannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. For example, a person may work from 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. on Monday, 3:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday, and 11:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. on Wednesday. It is typically consumed in pill form. Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. Variations and adaptations in cognition and behavior make individuals more or less successful in reproducing and passing their genes to their offspring. While hypnosis may be useful in enhancing memory or a skill, such enhancements are very modest in nature (Raz, 2011). A number of risk factors have been associated with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. In contrast,non-REM (NREM)sleep is subdivided into four stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves. According to the dissociation view, hypnosis is effectively a dissociated state of consciousness, much like our earlier example where you may drive to work, but you are only minimally aware of the process of driving because your attention is focused elsewhere. . Some research suggests that sleep deprivation affects cognitive and motor function as much as, if not more than, alcohol intoxication (Williamson & Feyer, 2000). Upon a search of the premises, police found blood-stained clothes and a bloody knife in the trunk of Falaters car, and he had blood stains on his neck. In such instances, REM rebound may actually represent an adaptive response to stress in non-depressed individuals by suppressing the emotional salience of aversive events that occurred in wakefulness (Suchecki, Tiba, & Machado, 2012). Users often consume the drug every few hours across days-long binges called runs, in which the user forgoes food and sleep. Research indicates that meditation may help reduce blood pressure, and the American Heart Association suggests that meditation might be used in conjunction with more traditional treatments as a way to manage hypertension, although there is not sufficient data for a recommendation to be made (Brook et al., 2013). One hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). The early portion of stage 1 sleep producesalpha waves, which are relatively low frequency (813Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized (Figure 4.8). As the dose increases, people report feeling sedated. This is similar to the kind of paralysis experienced by healthy individuals during REM sleep (Burgess & Scammell, 2012; Hishikawa & Shimizu, 1995; Luppi et al., 2011). Yarmila Falaters body was found in the familys pool with 44 stab wounds. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). For example, irritability, distractibility, and impairments in cognitive and moral judgment can occur with fewer than four hours of sleep. While it is probably the most commonly used drug in the world, the potency of this particular drug pales in comparison to the other stimulant drugs described in this section. Ethanol, which we commonly refer to as alcohol, is in a class of psychoactive drugs known as depressants (Figure 4.15). Generally, treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). There may be many factors that contribute to insomnia, including age, drug use, exercise, mental status, and bedtime routines. Feeling tired. However, when a stimulant drug was used in conjunction with a popular antidepressant, her condition improved dramatically. Research shows that the most severe effects of sleep deprivation occur when a person stays awake for more than 24 hours (Killgore & Weber, 2014; Killgore et al., 2007), or following repeated nights with fewer than four hours in bed (Wickens, Hutchins, Lauk, Seebook, 2015). Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. While sleep apnea is less common in thin people, anyone, regardless of their weight, who snores loudly or gasps for air while sleeping, should be checked for sleep apnea. (credit a: modification of work by Todd Huffman), Psychedelic images like this are often associated with hallucinogenic compounds. It seems like everyone knows a friend, family member, or neighbor who has died of an overdose. In fact, this relationship is so robust that some view the presence of RBD as a potential aid in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of neurodegenerative diseases (Ferini-Strambi, 2011). During periods of emotional arousal, the woman complained that she felt some weakness on the right side of her body. In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. The internal state of an object is the set of all its attributes' values. Cognitive-behavioral therapyis a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. During this time, an individuals heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. Sleep apnea is much more common in overweight people and is often associated with loud snoring. Acontinuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)device includes a mask that fits over the sleepers nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the persons airways, forcing them to remain open, as shown inFigure 4.13. While cognitive deficits may be the most obvious, many body systems are negatively impacted by lack of sleep. Five cardinal signs characterize this response: pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Large-scale public health campaigns by the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Drug Abuse have led to recent declines in the opioid crisis. Methamphetamineis a type of amphetamine that can be made from ingredients that are readily available (e.g., medications containing pseudoephedrine, a compound found in many over-the-counter cold and flu remedies). These brain areas include the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. You were capable of engaging in the all of the complex tasks involved with operating a motor vehicle even though you were not aware of doing so. (Jayanthi & Ramamoorthy, 2005; Rothman, Blough, & Baumann, 2007). While we have discussed the negative outcomes associated with sleep deprivation, it should be pointed out that there are many benefits that are associated with adequate amounts of sleep. This hypnogram illustrates how an individual moves through the various stages of sleep. This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. a. will be healthier than children because they are exposed to fewer infectious diseases.b. Whilecaffeineis generally considered a relatively safe drug, high blood levels of caffeine can result in insomnia, agitation, muscle twitching, nausea, irregular heartbeat, and even death (Reissig, Strain, & Griffiths, 2009; Wolt, Ganetsky, & Babu, 2012). Furthermore, slow-wave sleep after learning a new task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber, Ghilardi, Massimini, & Tononi, 2004) and seems essential for effective memory formation (Stickgold, 2005). Among a variety of neurobiological evidence, John Hobson cites research on lucid dreams as an opportunity to better understand dreaming in general. For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over a five-month period to report the degree to which their former spouses were on their minds. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on a project at work. If you get peritoneal dialysis, peritonitis symptoms also may include: Cloudy dialysis fluid. Our states of consciousness change as we move from wakefulness to sleep. Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. . While amphetamines are often abused, they are also commonly prescribed to children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The researchers showed that these states correspond to distinct strategies, and then they identified . One important regulator of sleep-wake cycles is the hormonemelatonin. Stage 3is often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because this stage is characterized by low frequency (less than 3 Hz), high amplitudedelta waves(Figure 4.10). By the late 19th century, German psychiatrist SigmundFreudhad become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem. Why do we devote so much time to sleeping? Homeostasis refers to the body's need to reach and maintain a certain state of equilibrium. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. As mentioned earlier, one of the criteria for insomnia involves experiencing these symptoms for at least three nights a week for at least one months time (Roth, 2007). Homeostasisis the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. Stimulantsare drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. These initiatives include increasing access to treatment and recovery services, increasing access to overdose-reversal drugs like Naloxone, and implementing better public health monitoring systems (NIDA, 2019). that would be one of the problems that Ive encountered. Repeated use of these stimulants can have significant adverse consequences. Unfortunately, this is not the case; however, several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the function of sleep. You have read that sleep is distinguished by low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness. Try going to bed and waking up at the same time every day to keep your biological clock in sync so your body gets in the habit of sleeping every night. 22. The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. With excessive alcohol use, a person might experience a complete loss of consciousness and/or difficulty remembering events that occurred during a period of intoxication (McKim & Hancock, 2013). One way that this happens involves traveling across multiple time zones. Common definitions of health include: a. optimal weight and endurance. Nicotine exerts its effects through its interaction with acetylcholine receptors. People sleep better in cooler temperatures. However, for some, its not because of all-night partying or late-night study sessions. The pineal and pituitary glands secrete a number of hormones during sleep. Thus, K-complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response to what is going on in our environments (Halsz, 1993; Steriade & Amzica, 1998). (a) Delta waves, which are low frequency and high amplitude, characterize (b) slow-wave stage 3 and stage 4 sleep. This chart illustrates the circadian change in body temperature over 28 hours in a group of eight young men. Tolerance can cause the user to increase the amount of drug used to a dangerous leveleven to the point of overdose and death. Natural opioids, calledopiates, are derivatives of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant. This feeling of a depressed mood is also accompanied by two or more additional symptoms, to include changes in appetite, insomnia or hypersomnia, low energy or fatigue, low self-esteem, feelings of hopelessness, and poor concentration or difficulty with decision making. There are individual differences in regard to our sleep-wake cycle. Marijuana may also have some promise in the treatment of a variety of medical conditions (Mather, Rauwendaal, Moxham-Hall, & Wodak, 2013; Robson, 2014; Schicho & Storr, 2014). One popular hypothesis of sleep incorporates the perspective of evolutionary psychology. More specifically, homeostasis is the body's tendency to monitor and maintain internal states, such as temperature and blood sugar, at fairly constant and stable levels. In some cases, though, there may be no symptoms of inflammation at all. Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines (Mignot, 2012). Has something like this ever happened to you? Bloating or a feeling of fullness in the abdomen. As already mentioned, the hypothalamus contains the SCNthe biological clock of the bodyin addition to other nuclei that, in conjunction with the thalamus, regulate slow-wave sleep. In a lucid dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control the dreams content (LaBerge, 1990). As part of treatment, the sleeping environment is often modified to make it a safer place for those suffering from RBD (Zangini, Calandra-Buonaura, Grimaldi, & Cortelli, 2011). At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. This is of such concern that people who are trying to overcome addiction to these substances should only do so under medical supervision. As a group, hallucinogens are incredibly varied in terms of the neurotransmitter systems they affect. Codeineis an opioid with relatively low potency. Thecollective unconscious, as described byJung, is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone. Ahallucinogenis one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences (Figure 4.18). Although individuals suffering from night terrors appear to be awake, they generally have no memories of the events that occurred, and attempts to console them are ineffective. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. It is also associated with paralysis of muscle systems in the body with the exception of those that make circulation and respiration possible. In the wake of the opiate epidemic, many drug cartels in Mexico are shifting from producing heroin to producing highly potent but inexpensive forms of methamphetamine. In the latter part of 2013, however, the United States Department of Justice issued statements indicating that they would not continue to challenge state medical marijuana laws. By the end of this section, you will be able to: Consciousnessdescribes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. Sore throat. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. Sleep apneais defined by episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. Users experience increased energy, feelings of pleasure, and emotional warmth. In addition, sleep deprivation often results in depression-like symptoms. 3. Confusion. D) the demographic characteristics of the person C) the severity and duration of the problem. They were ALL my fault. Parasomnias can occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep. The freebase version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable version of the drug. As a result, many scientists have urged the federal government to allow for relaxation of current marijuana laws and classifications in order to facilitate a more widespread study of the drugs effects (Aggarwal et al., 2009; Bostwick, 2012; Kogan & Mechoulam, 2007). Two theories attempt to answer this question: One theory views hypnosis as dissociation and the other theory views it as the performance of a social role. Gastrointestinal symptoms including abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. For example, the National Institutes of Drug Abuse has sponsored research that suggests the misuse and abuse of the prescription pain killers hydrocodone and oxycodone are significant public health concerns (Maxwell, 2006). Remarkably, Falater insisted that he had no recollection of hurting his wife in any way. Watch this, Sleep, which we all experience, is a quiet and mysterious pause in our daily lives. Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. d. respond to illnesses much like the older adults do. In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. Access for free athttps://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction. In recent years, methamphetamine (meth) use has become increasingly widespread. If people are deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep without disturbance, they will spend more time in REM sleep in what would appear to be an effort to recoup the lost time in REM. Drugwithdrawalincludes a variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued. One or two nights of sleep difficulty is not unusual, but if you experience anything more than that, you should seek a doctors advice. She indicated that she had fallen asleep at inappropriate or dangerous times, including while eating, while socializing with friends, and while driving her car. The substantial amount of research on SIDS has led to a number of recommendations to parents to protect their children (Figure 4.14). The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Given that college students are notorious for suffering from significant sleep debt (Hicks, Fernandez, & Pelligrini, 2001; Hicks, Johnson, & Pelligrini, 1992; Miller, Shattuck, & Matsangas, 2010), chances are you and your classmates deal with sleep debt-related issues on a regular basis. Other depressants include barbiturates and benzodiazepines. A few such benefits listed by the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) include maintaining healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor coordination, as well as a number of benefits related to cognition and memory formation. Methadone clinicshelp people who previously struggled with opioid addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the use of methadone. I was really sleepy and having trouble concentrating. Nicotine is most commonly used in the form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco; therefore, there is a tremendous interest in developing effective smoking cessation techniques. Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Neurogenic shock is caused by damage to the central nervous system, usually a spinal cord injury. It is also common for these types of drugs to cause hallucinations of body sensations (e.g., feeling as if you are a giant) and a skewed perception of the passage of time. We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping. We experience different states of consciousness and different levels of awareness on a regular basis. Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple brain areas acting in conjunction with one another. Methamphetamine addiction produces an intense craving that is difficult to treat. For instance, the concentration of various ions in your blood must be kept steady, along with pH and the concentration of glucose. Because GABA has a quieting effect on the brain, GABA agonists also have a quieting effect; these types of drugs are often prescribed to treat both anxiety and insomnia. Not able to pass stool or gas. Lucid dreamsare dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. (a) A period of rapid eye movement is marked by the short red line segment. For individuals who are especially open to the power of suggestion, hypnosis can prove to be a very effective technique, and brain imaging studies have demonstrated that hypnotic states are associated with global changes in brain functioning (Del Casale et al., 2012; Guldenmund, Vanhaudenhuyse, Boly, Laureys, & Soddu, 2012). This can lead to people compulsively using stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines, in part to try to reestablish the persons physical and psychological pre-use baseline. This shift in policy may be in response to the scientific communitys recommendations and/or reflect changing public opinion regarding marijuana. Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. Sleep reboundrefers to the fact that a sleep-deprived individual will fall asleep more quickly during subsequent opportunities for sleep. Theta wavesare even lower frequency (47 Hz), higher amplitude brain waves than alpha waves. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm). Amphetamines have a mechanism of action quite similar to cocaine in that they block the reuptake of dopamine in addition to stimulating its release (Figure 4.16). Think meditation might help? This treatment option has proven to be effective for people suffering from mild to severe cases of sleep apnea (McDaid et al., 2009). The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? Aches and pains, such as severe headache and muscle and joint pain. The different stages of sleep will be identified, and sleep disorders will be described. While awake, we feel alert and aware of the many important things going on around us. (b) Heroin is cooked on a spoon over a candle. That includes exercise and bright light from devices. Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is most often used to treat RBD. MDMA (3.4-methelynedioxy-methamphetamine, commonly known as ecstasy or Molly) is a mild stimulant with perception-altering effects. Treatment. It was getting to the point where it was kind of scary (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). Therefore, it is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system. Here are some tips to maintain healthy sleep: Aparasomniais one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role. Depletion of certain neurotransmitters can lead to mood dysphoria, cognitive problems, and other factors. The clock sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina. While many users snort cocaine, intravenous injection and inhalation (smoking) are also common. While disruptions in circadian rhythms can have negative consequences, there are things we can do to help us realign our biological clocks with the external environment. (b) People practicing meditation may experience an alternate state of consciousness. Body temperature rises throughout the waking day, peaking in the afternoon, and falls during sleep with the lowest point occurring during the very early morning hours. Which of the following was an advance in science and medicine in the18th and 19th centuries?
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